The word Yoga is derived from the root Yuj - 'Yujyate anena iti Yogah'. Panini's dhatupatha (collection of roots of Sanskrit words) mentions this root in 3 different conjugations giving three different meanings. In the fourth conjugation (Yujyate) the root signifies 'samaadhi' i.e. absorption or tranquility, in the seventh conjugation (Yunakti) it denotes Yoga i.e., joining or yoking; and in the 10th conjugation (Yojayati), it means 'samyamana' i.e., judicious control. Of these, the original root, as the early usage indicates, seems to be the one in the seventh conjugation and the other meanings seem to have been coined when the word Yoga got its special meaning of yoking body, speech and mind for achieving tranquility and thus controlling them judiciously.

ORIGINS OF YOGA AND ITS TEXTUAL TRADITION

The various aspects of classical Yoga are to be encountered as early as the Vedic Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Mahabharata and the Puranas also have long sections expounding the various varieties of Yoga.

Hindu tradition states that the first text of classical Yoga as such was by Hiranyagarbha. The Yogashaastra of Hiranyagarbha is lost, although 3 verses from it are quoted in the commentary on Sanatasujata (a portion of the Mahabharata) ascribed to Sri Shankaraachaarya and two additional verses are quoted in the Vishnu Purana 2.13.42-43. Some sources however credit Maheshvara as the founder of the system. For instance, in the play Bhagvadajjuka of King Mahedravarman who ruled from Kanchi around 600 C.E., one of the characters, a mendicant, mentions Maheshvara as a teacher of Yoga. Nothing much is known about the Maheshvara Yogashaastra except for brief descriptions in the Vayu Purana and elsewhere.

According to the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, which is a Pancharatra text, the Yogashaastra of Hiranyagarbha was comprised of two Yoga Samhitas- Nirodha Samhita and the Karma Yoga Samhita. These Samhitas were respectively divided into 12 and 4 divisions. The divisions of the Nirodha Samhita are as follows: The first concerned the accessories of Yoga, the second with the defects, the third with the impediments, the fourth with the foundation of Yoga, the fifth with the support, the sixth with external principles, the next was called 'rikta Yoga' or empty Yoga, the next three dealt with the 'siddhis' or the effects/powers of Yoga and the last deals with liberation. The Karmayoga Samhita deals with multifarious and solitary actions, external and internal for both. Thus, there are four divisions of the Karmayoga Samhita as well.

Numerous other teachers of Yogashaastra are mentioned in the Mahabharata. In his commentary on the Vyaasabhaashya on the Yogasutras of Patanjali, Vachaspati Mishra mentions the Yogashaastra of Varshaganya (who is also celebrated as a teacher of Saamkhya) and the 'Dhyanayogashaastra' (text on meditation) by Jaigishavya, who is again a great teacher of Saamkhya. From its early inception, Yoga has been linked profoundly with the Saamkhya school of Hindu philosophy. We will deal with the differences and similarities between the two schools later. There are several varieties of Yoga: Rajayoga/Dhyanayoga, Hathayoga, Mantrayoga, Layayoga, Raseshvara Darshana, Pashupata Yoga and so on. This study will deal only with the first.

The classical text par excellece of Rajayoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali probably lived in the 3rd century BC in Southern India. His identity with the author of the great work on grammar - the Mahaabhaashyam - is not confirmed. There exist two commentaries of considerable value on the Yoga Sutra - the Yoga Bhaashyam of Vyaasa (4th century CE), also called the Sankhya Pravachana Bhaashya, and the Raajamaarthaanda of Bhoja (10th century CE). Vaacaspathi Mishra's Tattvavaishaaradi is a gloss on Vyaasa's bhaashyam. Vijnaanabhikshu also comments on Vyaasa's work in his Yogavaartikam. Other notable authors of the Yoga darshanam are Naagoji Bhatta or Naagesha Bhatta, Naaraayana Bhikshu and Mahaadeva. Normally, the Yoga Sutras together with the Sankhya Pravachana Bhaashya of Vyaasa are together considered the 'Yogashaastra' amongst scholarly circles. Recently, a commentary on the Yogashaastra, ascribed to Shankaaraacharya has also been brought to light. Scholarly opinion is divided on its authenticity, i.e., some say that it is a genuine work of Sri Shankaraachaarya, while others doubt it.

Some other texts on Yoga are :

1.  Passages on Yoga in the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads (eg. In the Katha, Shvetashvatara and the Maitrayani Upanishads)

2.  The Yoga Upanishads: Eg. Shandilya Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad

3.  Yoga Yaajnavalkya: At least 3 versions of this text exist, and 2 of them are said to exist from at least the 2nd cent. C.E.

4.  Discourses on Yoga in the Mahabharata (especially in the Shanti Parvan and the Bhagavad Gita), in the Puranas, Tantras, Kavyas

5.  Yoga Vasishtha: this is actually a Vedaantic text and is a recast of an older text called the Mokshopaya

6.  Yoga Patanjala: This is also actually a theistic Samhya/Vedaantic work.

IMPORTANCE OF YOGA IN THE INDIAN TRADITION

Yoga as a practice, which involved austerity, discipline, control and meditation was in vogue amongst all ethical schools of Indian philosophy - both orthodox and heterodox. The Rig Veda refers to Yoga techniques on meditation. The Atharva Veda describes the supernatural powers to be obtained by Yogic practices. Some Upanishads considers Yoga as the inward search for knowledge of reality, while others refer to its practical side. The Buddha too was familiar with both sides of Yoga. The YogAcAra school of Buddhism openly combines Buddhist doctrines with Yoga and insists that liberation can be obtained only with the practice of yoga.

What distinguishes the Yoga school from the generic Yoga, is its adherence to Saamkhya theory. But while the Saamkhya concentrates on the theory of how Praakriti and Purusha combine to form the world that we know, its sister system, the Yoga under the framework of Saamkhyan metaphysics, gives a systematic exposition of the practice involved to effect liberation - the separation of the Purusha from Praakriti. Hence in the Yoga the stress is more on psychology - the relation between the Purusha and the mental mechanism.

There is hardly any sect of school of Hinduism which has not adapted the central teachings of the Yogashaastra into its own system. In fact, the greatest teachers of most Hindu sects are also often renowned as Yogins. For instance, Nathamuni, the founder of Visishtadvaita Vedaanta is also said to have been a great Yogin, as was Govindapaadacharya- the teacher of Sri Shankaracharya.

PATANJALI'S YOGA SUTRAS : A SUMMARY

Patanjali's Yogasutra is divided into four parts :

1. the aim of meditation (samaadhipaada),
2. the practice of meditation (saadhanapaada),
3. the powers attained by such practice (vibhutipaada) and
4. the nature of liberation (kaivalyapaada).

Patanjali accepts the general conceptions of the Saamkhya - of the world evolving from Praakriti, innumerable Purushas observing the evolution and falling into bondage mistaking the actions of Praakriti as belonging to themselves and the liberation effected when the Purusha realizes its true identity. But as his system is aimed more towards a practical path to liberation, he introduces the following modifications to the Saamkhyan principles, which gives his system a distinct identity:

1. God is introduced as the principle who guides the evolution of Praakriti to fulfill the desires of the Purushas. But the aim of Patanjali's Yoga is not union with God. It is the separation of the Purusha from Praakriti. God helps the Purushas in their efforts to gain liberation.
2. The development of Praakriti - starting from the Mahat, while the ahamkAra (self sense), manas (mind), the five senses of cognition and the five of action develops on one side, the five subtle substances produces the five gross elements on a parallel line.
3. While the Saamkhya considers the buddhi (intellect), manas (mind) and ahamkAram (ego) as distinct organs, the Yoga clubs all three into one single organ called the chitta, which unlike the mental mechanism of the Saamkhya is all pervasive.
4. The Yoga has no need for a subtle body, as it considers the senses organs to be material in nature.
5. The Saamkhya teaches that when the Purusha becomes aware of itself as distinct from Praakriti it is liberated - so knowledge is the liberator. The Yoga takes the alternative route - it advocates the control of Praakriti - through austerity, discipline and meditation - the implication being that by such control, the chitta would be purified thus indirectly effecting the liberation of the Purusha. Liberation annot be achieved by mere knowledge - discipline of body and mind too is needed.

CHITTA VRITTI NIRODHA

As the chitta is a product of Praakriti it is subject to the three gunas and undergoes modifications according to the predominance of the gunas. The chitta is not conscious by itself and becomes conscious due to the reflection of the Purusha on it. The chitta is all- pervasive like aakaasha (space) and each Purusha has a chitta associated with it. The chitta contracts or expands depending on the various physical life forms it inhabits in successive lives, due to past karma. In an animal it is contracted while in a human it is relatively expanded. In its contracted or relatively expanded form the chitta is called kaaryachitta, while in its all pervasive form it is called kaaranachitta. The aim of Yoga discipline is to turn the chitta back to its all-pervasive form of kAranachitta.

The chitta, when it perceives objects with the help of the senses, takes the form of the object perceived. The consciousness of the Purusha reflected on the chitta too takes the form of the modified chitta, thus resulting in knowledge. As the chitta at any point in time can undergo only one modification, the Purusha can only know one object at a time. That is the reason that we only know the objects but never the chitta itself. Though the chitta might undergo various modifications, the Purusha, which is the knower remains constant and unaffected.

Every time the chitta undergoes modification, it leaves behind a certain effect - thus giving rise to predispositions - which is the cause of desires. Predispositions cause new predispositions, desires leads to newer desires - out of these is formed the sense of personality which feeds on the world with its desires and passions. The life of the Ego is unsatisfactory and restless as it is affected by the five afflictions of :

1. avidya - ignorance which mistakes the unreal for the real,
2. asmita - mistaking the body and mind as oneself,
3. raga - attachment to the pleasant,
4. dvesha - aversion to the unpleasant and
5. abhinivesha - instinctive love of life and dread of death.

Chitta vritti nirodha or the cessation of the mental modifications is the goal of Yoga. When the Purusha observes the mind in constant interaction with the word, assuming the shapes of various objects it perceives, it is deluded into believing that it is the experiencer. But when the mind is subdued with single pointed meditation, the accumulated dispositions are erased and it becomes pure sattva shining forth like an unblemished mirror. When the Purusha sees itself reflected in the purified mind, it realizes its true nature and is thus liberated.

Perception, inference and the scripture are the three valid means of knowledge. But since all empirical life is only based on the misconception of the Purusha, the means of knowledge are not ultimately valid - only yogic practices - both physical and mental can lead to liberation.

ASHTANGA MAARGA

Since the mind is intimately connected with the body, the regulation of the mind requires the control of the body too. To this end the Yoga offers the eight fold (ashtanga) method :

1. Yama or abstention - ahimsa or non-violence is the greatest virtue and all virtues are said to be based on it. We should also abstain from falsehood, theft, incontinence and avarice. Not only should we refrain from sinful acts, but we should also cultivate friendliness, compassion, cheerfulness and indifference to pleasure and pain.

2. Niyama or observance - Purification of both the body and mind, contentment, practicing austerity/forbearance of opposites, study of spiritual treatises and devotion to God.

3. Asana or posture - the yoga gives us a discipline to perfect the body to gain beauty, grace, strength and hardness.

4. Praanaayaama or regulation of breath - as the breath, so the mind. Respiratory exercises to indirectly calm and control the mind.

5. Pratyaahaara or withdrawal of the senses - the mind feeds on the objects and experiences presented to it by the senses. So the senses themselves should be controlled.

6. Dhyaanam or fixed attention - eka chitta or one pointed concentration on an object by the mind is the first step towards the control of the mind.

7. Dhaarana or contemplation

8. Samaadhi or meditative concentration - it is the state leading to deliverance. There are two stages to it - samprajnaata and asamprajnaata. Samprajnaata is a state of intense concentration on a single object with the goal of restraining the modifications of the chitta. In the process of such intense meditation, the knower and the known merge into one. But this is not the Purusha in itself for one is still conscious of the object in this state. It's just that the knower itself becomes the known.

When the mind becomes calm due to constant meditation it gives rise to insight into the truth of things. This intuitive insight is not to be compared with ordinary knowledge. There is absolute certainty in this mode for the result is a concrete reality and not a general notion. The resulting impression from this insight obliterates all the previous impressions and leads to final liberation.

Asamprajnaata samaadhi is a state where all objectivity is lost and the Purusha resides in itself. Till this stage it's only the discrimination of Praakriti from the Purusha. When all modifications of the mind - chitta vritti - has ceased, which implies that the mind has been turned inward with no object to perceive - the Purusha sees its true nature in the purified chitta and abides in itself. This state of samaadhi is beyond description - Vyaasa declares : "through yoga must yoga be known and yoga becomes manifest through yoga and he who is earnest about yoga rests in it for evermore".

BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

Bondage of the Purusha is due to its ignorance (avidya) of the true nature of things. A life of virtue, control and compassion aided by meditation results in discriminative knowledge (vivekakhyAti), which removes the ignorance. Praakriti ceases to act on the Purusha and the latter abides in itself in absolute independence (kaivalyam).

But this is not final liberation, which is obtained only when the physical body is cast off. If past karmas remain, the individual has to work towards the expiation of the stored up karma even if it involves more births. Karmas are of three kinds:

1. praarabhdha - effects of past deeds being experienced in the present,
2. samchita - effects of past karma which have to be expiated in some future life and
3. Agaami - effects of present karma, which have to be expiated in the present or in some future life.

When all karmas are destroyed, the Yogi is finally liberated from the cycle of births and death.

SIDDHIS - SUPERNORMAL POWERS

The Yogasutras talk of supernormal powers gained through the practice of yoga: incredible physical strength and endurance, ability to read another's mind, telepathy, the ability to know the past and predict the future, making oneself invisible etc But Patanjali cautions that one should not make an end of these perfections (siddhis) themselves, but rather use these as an aid towards liberation, which is the true goal.

GOD

Patanjali's Yoga is not overtly theistic. The goal of the system is not union with God (Ishvara), but separation of the Purusha from Praakriti. But devotion to God is considered one of the modes of meditation. Though he cannot grant liberation, he helps in removing obstacles, which hinder the individual's effort towards liberation. Ishvara is a super Purusha who is considered to have a perfect nature and is of unrivalled pre-eminence, an omniscient Being full of power, wisdom and goodness he is beyond the law of karma and guides the evolution of Praakriti to serve the interests of the Purushas. He is not to be confused with liberated Purushas, for unlike them who have severed all contacts with the world, he is in constant contact with the world. But being free from all entanglements of worldly existence, he lives in eternal bliss. He is the teacher of the ancient Sages and teaches the scripture at each world epoch.